Political personalities

Abdullah Öcalan

Political leader1949–

A Kurdish political leader, Öcalan abandoned revolutionary Marxism and formulated democratic confederalism, inspiring the autonomous experiment of Rojava, based on self-management, ecology, and gender equality.

Abraham Lincoln

Statesman1809–1865

US president during the Civil War, Lincoln preserved the Union, strengthened the federal government, and led the abolition of slavery, combining civic nationalism, democratic republicanism, and progressive moral reform.

Adolf Hitler

Dictator1889–1945

Leader of National Socialism and the Third Reich, Hitler imposed a totalitarian, racist, expansionist regime, responsible for unleashing World War II and committing the genocide known as the Holocaust.

Ahmed al-Sharaa

Interim President of Syria1982–

Syria’s interim president since 2025 and former HTS leader, Ahmed al-Sharaa concentrates power during the transition, retains Islam as the main source of law and seeks to reintegrate Kurdish areas and attract investment amid sectarian violence and civil rights concerns.

Alberto Fujimori

President of Peru1938–2024

President of Peru (1990–2000), Fujimori defeated the Shining Path insurgency and curbed hyperinflation through neoliberal shock therapy, but shut down Congress in the 1992 self-coup and was convicted of crimes against humanity and corruption.

Aldo Moro

Primeiro-ministro da Itália1916–1978

Christian Democracy leader and Italian Prime Minister who orchestrated the opening to the left and the Historic Compromise with the Communist Party, later kidnapped and killed by the Red Brigades.

Aldo Rebelo

Politician and Writer1956–present

Brazilian politician and writer who served as president of the Chamber of Deputies and federal minister. Known for nationalist sovereignty, defense of Amazonian development and agribusiness, and staunch opposition to foreign environmental NGOs.

Aleksandr Lukashenko

President of Belarus1954–

President of Belarus since 1994, ruling through an authoritarian, personalist regime that combines strong state economic control, military alliance with Russia, and systematic repression of opposition.

Alexander Hamilton

Statesman1755–1804

A founder of the United States, Hamilton championed strong federal government, robust public finances, a national bank, and industrialization, combining constitutional republicanism with modernizing economic nationalism.

Alexander the Great

King and conqueror356–323 a.C.

King of Macedon and conqueror of Persia, Alexander combined military monarchy, imperial expansion, city founding, and the integration of Greek, Macedonian, and Eastern elites after defeating the Achaemenids.

Álvaro Uribe

President of Colombia1952–present

President of Colombia from 2002 to 2010. Known for his Democratic Security doctrine combating FARC insurgencies and drug cartels, paired with free-market reforms, foreign investment promotion, and close strategic alignment with the United States.

Ambroise Croizat

Ministre du Travail et de la Sécurité sociale1901–1951

Syndicaliste CGT et ministre communiste, Croizat joue un rôle majeur parmi les nombreux acteurs qui organisent la Sécurité sociale après la Libération. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Communisme français · protection sociale de la Libération. Période : 1945–1947 · ministère du Travail et de la Sécurité sociale. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Anders Fogh Rasmussen

Statesman1953–

Liberal Prime Minister of Denmark (2001–2009) and later Secretary General of NATO (2009–2014), Rasmussen combined market reforms with the Nordic welfare state, championing free trade, European integration, and secular, progressive values.

Andrzej Duda

President of Poland1972–

President of Poland aligned with Law and Justice (PiS). He champions conservative Catholic family values, military modernization, national sovereignty and staunch alliance with the US and NATO.

Andy Burnham

Prime Minister of the United Kingdom1970–

British Labour politician Burnham advocates devolution, electoral reform, public control of essential services and closer EU ties. He supports Ukraine, border control and LGBT rights, influenced by Catholic social teaching.

Anne Hidalgo

Responsable politique · Parti socialiste1959–

Programme social-démocrate et écologique : protections sociales, planification climatique, décentralisation et économie mixte. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Social-démocratie écologique. Période : Programme personnel de l'élection présidentielle 2022. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Anthony Albanese

Prime Minister of Australia1963–

Australian Labor prime minister since 2022, he expands Medicare and public housing, maintains AUKUS, tightens temporary visas and banned social media for under-16s, while defending multiculturalism and free trade.

António de Oliveira Salazar

Dictator1889–1970

Leader of the Portuguese Estado Novo, Salazar ran a conservative, corporatist dictatorship that united order, Catholic nationalism, and political control without mass mobilization, keeping the country isolated for decades.

Aristide Briand

Président du Conseil et artisan de la diplomatie de paix1862–1932

Briand défend une séparation conciliatrice des Églises et de l’État puis le rapprochement franco-allemand et la diplomatie de paix. Son évolution politique impose une période de référence explicite. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Républicanisme laïque · libertés et conciliation. Période : 1905–1928 · séparation des Églises et de l’État et diplomatie de paix. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Augusto Pinochet

Dictator1915–2006

A Chilean general and dictator, Pinochet overthrew Allende and established an anti-communist military regime, combining political repression, authoritarian conservatism, and neoliberal reforms.

B. R. Ambedkar

Jurist and reformer1891–1956

An Indian jurist and reformer, Ambedkar was the principal architect of India's Constitution and leader of the Dalits, fighting the caste system and defending rights, equality, and social justice for the oppressed.

Baldwin IV

King of Jerusalem1161–1185

Crusader king of Jerusalem from 1174 to 1185, Baldwin IV ruled as a leper from childhood, defeated Saladin at Montgisard, defended the Latin kingdom by faith and sword and kept pragmatic truces with the Muslims.

Barack Obama

Statesman1961–

An American statesman, Obama symbolized moderate progressive liberalism, expanding public healthcare, civil rights, and multilateral diplomacy within an institutional market economy.

Baron of Rio Branco

Diplomat and foreign minister1845–1912

Foreign minister from 1902 to 1912, the Baron of Rio Branco settled Brazil's borders through arbitration and negotiation, as in Acre and Misiones, drew the country closer to the United States and made law and diplomacy the basis of foreign policy.

Barry Goldwater

Politician1909–1998

An American politician, Goldwater was a decisive figure of the modern right in the United States, defending free markets, anti-communism, and limited government, and paving the way for Reaganite conservatism.

Bashar al-Assad

Dictator1965–

Syrian president from 2000 to 2024, Bashar al-Assad preserved his family’s Ba’athist regime through repression, a clientelist economy, and Russian-Iranian backing in the civil war; he was overthrown and lives in exile in Russia.

Belisarius

Byzantine generalc. 500–565

Byzantium's most successful general under Justinian I, he reconquered Vandal North Africa and Ostrogothic Italy, and crushed the Nika riots (532) with a massacre at the Hippodrome. Loyal to the emperor even under suspicion and humiliation, he ran a rigidly disciplined army.

Benito Mussolini

Dictator1883–1945

The creator of fascism, Mussolini ruled Italy as a totalitarian dictatorship built on a leader cult and a corporatist state. An atheist and anticlerical in his youth, he made the Church a political ally through the 1929 Lateran Pacts, more from expediency than faith.

Benjamin Disraeli

Statesman1804–1881

A British statesman, Disraeli formulated one-nation paternalistic conservatism, reconciling tradition, monarchy, and social reforms to integrate the working classes and strengthen the country's cohesion.

Benjamin Franklin

Statesman and scientist1706–1790

A polymath, diplomat, and founder of the United States, Franklin united republicanism, free thought, commerce, science, innovation, and institutional pragmatism, symbolizing a liberal, cosmopolitan, Enlightenment strand of modern politics.

Benjamin Netanyahu

Politician1949–

An Israeli politician, Netanyahu became a central figure of Israel's nationalist, security-focused right, uniting economic liberalism, conservative Zionism, and a hard line against regional adversaries.

Bill Clinton

Statesman1946–

President of the United States (1993–2001), Clinton promoted a 'Third Way' combining fiscal discipline and welfare reform with investment in education and technology, liberalized trade through NAFTA and China's WTO accession, and oversaw a period of strong economic growth despite being impeached over a personal scandal.

Boris Johnson

Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom1964–

A Conservative and Brexit leader, prime minister from 2019 to 2022, Johnson took the UK out of the EU, armed Ukraine, raised taxes and public spending, opened non-EU immigration and fell after Partygate; he is now a Daily Mail columnist.

Caesar Augustus

Emperor63 a.C.–14 d.C.

The first Roman emperor, Augustus turned the republican crisis into a stable imperial order, preserving institutional forms while centralizing military command, administration, and political authority.

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Marshal and statesman1867–1951

Commander of Finnish forces and later president, Mannerheim led the defense against the Soviet invasion in the Winter War, sustaining universal conscription and fortifications, yet refusing to advance on Leningrad and seeking a separate peace in 1944.

Carlos Lacerda

Journalist and governor1914–1977

Journalist and leader of the UDN party, Lacerda traded youthful communism for liberal anticommunism, helped topple Vargas and back the 1964 coup, governed Guanabara with major public works and favela removals and later founded the Broad Front.

Carlos Marighella

Guerrilla leader and Marxist theorist1911–1969

Constituent congressman and founder of the National Liberation Action (ALN), he broke with the orthodox PCB to wage urban armed struggle against the Brazilian military dictatorship.

Carlos Menem

President of Argentina1930–2021

Argentine president from 1989 to 1999 elected by Peronism, Menem embraced neoliberalism: he privatized state firms, pegged the peso to the dollar, opened the economy, aligned with the US and pardoned junta officers.

Charlemagne

Monarch747–814

King of the Franks and emperor, Charlemagne united military expansion, Christianization, administrative reform, and cultural patronage, becoming a symbol of imperial Christian monarchy and the medieval European order.

Charles de Gaulle

Statesman and military leader1890–1970

President of France (1959–1969) and leader of the Resistance in World War II, de Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a strong presidency, withdrew France from NATO's integrated military command, and built an independent nuclear arsenal to secure strategic autonomy free of subordinate alliances.

Charles I of England

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland1600–1649

The Stuart king defended royal prerogative and the divine right of monarchs. His conflicts with Parliament over taxes and authority, alongside his attempt to impose Anglican practices in Scotland, contributed to the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and his execution in 1649.

Charles III

King of the United Kingdom1948–presente

King of the United Kingdom since 2022, Charles III combines constitutional neutrality with decades of environmental activism and advocacy for organic farming, traditional urbanism and interfaith dialogue, having lobbied ministers in the “black spider memos” and acknowledged the Empire’s slaving past.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain1500–1558

Heir of the Habsburgs, Charles V united Spain, the Low Countries, the Holy Roman Empire and the American conquests, fought the Lutheran Reformation and the Ottomans as champion of universal Catholicism, crushed the Comuneros and abdicated in 1556.

Charles X Gustav

King of Sweden1622–1660

King of Sweden from 1654 to 1660, Charles X Gustav invaded Poland and Denmark, crossed the frozen Belts in 1658 and imposed the Treaty of Roskilde, taking the empire to its greatest extent and beginning the reduction of noble lands.

Chiang Kai-shek

Military officer and statesman1887–1975

Leader of the Kuomintang and the Republic of China, Chiang led the fight against the communists and the Japanese occupation, and after the 1949 defeat established a nationalist one-party regime and martial law in Taiwan, combining militant anti-communism with authoritarian developmentalism.

Christopher Columbus

Navigator and colonial governorc. 1451–1506

A Genoese navigator sailing for the Catholic Monarchs, he reached the Americas in 1492 seeking a trade route to the Indies. As colonial governor, he enslaved indigenous people in pursuit of gold and was arrested and sent to Spain in chains for abuses of power.

Cicero

Statesman and philosopher106–43 a.C.

A Roman statesman and philosopher, Cicero defended the republic, mixed government, and the rule of law, bequeathing the tradition of civic republicanism and natural law that influenced Western political thought.

Ciro Gomes

Politician1957–

A Brazilian politician, Ciro Gomes champions a national-developmentalist project, with a strong state role in the economy, industrialization, and national sovereignty, positioning himself as a voice of center-left labourism.

Constantine the Great

Roman Emperor272–337

Roman emperor from 306 to 337, Constantine reunified the Empire, granted freedom to Christians in the Edict of Milan (313), convened the Council of Nicaea (325), founded Constantinople and reorganized the state with a mobile army and fiscal reforms.

Corneliu Zelea Codreanu

Founder of the Iron Guard1899–1938

Founder of Romania’s Iron Guard, Codreanu combined fascism, violent antisemitism and Orthodox Christian mysticism. He advocated authoritarian leadership, national regeneration and communal organization of peasants and workers.

Cyril Ramaphosa

President of South Africa1952–

Former trade union leader, businessman and South African President since 2018 for the ANC. He balances industrial growth, constitutional land reform, pragmatism in foreign trade and multilateral BRICS diplomacy.

David Ben-Gurion

Prime Minister of Israel1886–1973

Leader of Labor Zionism and the Mapai party, Ben-Gurion proclaimed Israel's independence in 1948 and was its first prime minister, building a secular, centralized state with a strong public sector, kibbutzim, and the army as the school of the nation.

Deng Xiaoping

Statesman1904–1997

The leader who reoriented China after Mao, Deng promoted market reforms and economic opening under Communist Party control, creating the model of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the country's rapid growth.

Dominik Tarczyński

Politician1979–

Polish MEP for the Law and Justice party, Tarczyński champions national sovereignty within the EU, strict controls against illegal immigration, traditional Christian values, and firm opposition to Russia, having documented Russian war crimes in Ukraine since 2022.

Donald Trump

Politician1946–

An entrepreneur and US president, Trump leads the nationalist populism of the MAGA movement, with tariff protectionism, restrictive immigration policy, and anti-establishment rhetoric that redefined the right.

Donald Tusk

Prime Minister of Poland1957–

Leader of Civic Platform and former European Council President, returning to office in 2023: champion of EU integration, democratic rule of law and robust NATO collective defense against Russian aggression.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

General and statesman1890–1969

Supreme commander of Allied forces in World War II and later President of the United States (1953–1961), Eisenhower expanded the interstate highway system, pursued containment of communism through diplomatic and intelligence means, and warned in his farewell address against the power of the 'military-industrial complex.'

Édouard Philippe

Ancien Premier ministre · Horizons1970–

Les orientations récentes renforcent les sanctions, les quotas migratoires, l’effort de défense et les technologies ; l’économie proposée réduit les aides et prélèvements au bénéfice de l’activité privée. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Centre droit libéral et proeuropéen. Période : Orientations de campagne présidentielle 2027 publiées en 2026. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Eduardo Leite

Governor1985–

Governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Leite privatised the state water and power utilities and reformed its pension system; the first Brazilian governor to come out as gay, he switched parties to run in 2026.

Eduardo Paes

Politician and Public Administrator1969–present

Brazilian politician and multi-term mayor of Rio de Janeiro. Characterized by pragmatic centrist governance, fiscal administration centered on large-scale urban infrastructure investments, public-private partnerships, and broad institutional coalition-building.

Einar Gerhardsen

Norwegian prime minister1897–1987

Norwegian Labour prime minister, Gerhardsen rebuilt the country through economic planning, public services and collective bargaining. He consolidated parliamentary democracy and joined NATO while rejecting nuclear weapons on Norwegian soil.

Emílio Garrastazu Médici

Dictator1905–1985

A Brazilian general and dictator, Médici governed during the most repressive period of the military dictatorship, uniting heavy censorship and political persecution with the so-called economic miracle of accelerated growth and colossal public works.

Emmanuel Macron

Statesman1977–

A French statesman, Macron reached France's presidency as a centrist, liberal reformer, defending markets, European integration, and economic reforms, seeking to overcome the traditional divide between left and right.

Emperor Jimmu

Legendary Emperor of Japan711–585 BC

The first legendary emperor of Japan according to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, is said to have conquered Yamato by force of arms and founded the imperial line, a central myth of State Shinto and Japanese nationalism.

Emperor Meiji

Emperor of Japan1852–1912

Emperor under whose 1868 restoration Japan abolished the shogunate and the samurai, centralized the state, industrialized under the slogan "rich country, strong army", adopted the 1889 constitution and State Shinto, and defeated China and Russia.

Enéas Carneiro

Politician1938–2007

A Brazilian physician and politician, Enéas championed economic nationalism, technological sovereignty, nuclear energy, strong armed forces, and state planning, becoming a popular symbol of national developmentalism.

Engelbert Dollfuss

Dictator1892–1934

An Austrian chancellor, Dollfuss established Austrofascism, an authoritarian corporatist state with a Catholic base that dissolved parliament and repressed socialists and Nazis until his assassination by Nazi agents.

Enrico Berlinguer

Italian communist leader1922–1984

As leader of the Italian Communist Party, Berlinguer advocated a democratic, pluralist path to socialism, distanced himself from the Soviet model, and proposed the Historic Compromise with Christian Democrats.

Éric Zemmour

Essayiste et fondateur de Reconquête1958–

Programme assimilationniste et sécuritaire, souveraineté nationale, économie privée, conservatisme social et investissements technologiques. Référendums et restriction du contrôle constitutionnel coexistent. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Droite nationaliste et conservatrice. Période : Programme présidentiel 2022. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Ernesto Geisel

Military officer and statesman1907–1996

A general and president during the military regime, Geisel pursued a policy of "slow, gradual, and safe" political opening, combining controlled liberalization with selective repression of opponents and strong state intervention in the economy.

Evo Morales

Statesman1959–

Bolivia's first indigenous president, Evo Morales led indigenism and the plurinational state, nationalizing resources and expanding the rights of native peoples within a left-wing project.

Fabien Roussel

Dirigeant politique · Parti communiste français1969–

Communisme démocratique, nationalisations stratégiques, emploi et planification décentralisée. Défense nationale conservée, sortie de l'OTAN et désarmement multilatéral. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Communisme démocratique. Période : Programme personnel 2022 ; prises de position 2025. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Felipe VI

King of Spain1968–

King of Spain since 2014, a militarily trained constitutional monarch. In his 3 October 2017 speech he condemned the Catalan separatist referendum to defend constitutional unity; he renounced his father's inheritance and promotes transparency and Europeanism.

Ferdinand III of Castile

King of Castile and Leónc. 1201–1252

King of Castile from 1217 and León from 1230, he consolidated the union of the crowns and conquered Córdoba and Seville. He ruled as a medieval Catholic monarch and promoted legal and administrative organization in conquered territories.

Fernando Haddad

Economist and politician1963–

An economist and former mayor of São Paulo, Haddad served as education and finance minister, passing a new fiscal framework and a landmark tax reform; he left the cabinet in 2026 to run for state governor.

Fernando Henrique Cardoso

Sociologist and statesman1931–

A Brazilian sociologist and statesman, Fernando Henrique stabilized the economy with the Real Plan and, as president, conducted liberal reforms, privatizations, and the modernization of the state within social democracy.

Fidel Castro

Revolutionary1926–2016

A Cuban revolutionary, Fidel Castro led the 1959 revolution and built a single-party socialist state, anti-imperialist and nationalist, with a state-run economy and strong repression.

Flávio Bolsonaro

Politician1981–

A senator from Rio de Janeiro and the eldest son of Jair Bolsonaro, he is the Liberal Party's candidate for the presidency in 2026; he made public security his main banner in the Senate and backs selective privatizations and spending cuts.

Francis I of Austria

Emperor of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor1768–1835

The last Holy Roman Emperor and first Emperor of Austria, Francis I founded the Austrian Empire in 1804. Allied with Metternich, he suppressed liberal movements and supported the post-Napoleonic conservative order.

Francisco Franco

Dictator1892–1975

A Spanish general and dictator, Franco won the Civil War and ruled for decades over a nationalist, Catholic, authoritarian regime, repressing opponents and preserving a corporatist order until his death.

François Bayrou

Responsable centriste · MoDem1951–

Économie privée et services publics, pluralisme et représentation proportionnelle, intégration migratoire, défense européenne et modernisation numérique. Les propos d’autres députés dans le compte rendu ne sont pas attribués à Bayrou. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Centre humaniste et proeuropéen. Période : Déclaration de politique générale du 14 janvier 2025 ; ancien manifeste MoDem. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

François Hollande

Président de la République · 2012–20171954–

Social-démocratie réformiste de 2012 : économie mixte, redistribution, services publics et démocratie sociale. Le corpus historique ne décrit pas automatiquement ses positions actuelles. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Social-démocratie réformiste — programme de 2012. Période : Programme présidentiel personnel 2012 ; discours de campagne 2012. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

François Mitterrand

Président de la République · 1981–19951916–1996

Le programme de 1981 combine nationalisations, planification démocratisée, décentralisation, droits des femmes et des immigrés, libertés publiques et désarmement. Il ne décrit pas à lui seul les quatorze années de présidence. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Socialisme démocratique de transformation · programme de 1981. Période : 1981–1983 · programme de 1981 et première phase de gouvernement. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

François Ruffin

Député et journaliste1975–

Travaillisme écologique, protection du travail, régulation du logement et protections commerciales agricoles. Son manifeste adopte un réformisme révolutionnaire ; aucun classement objectif de « plus social-démocrate » n'en découle. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Travaillisme écologique. Période : Cahiers de campagne publiés en 2026 ; manifeste Debout. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Statesman1882–1945

US president during the Great Depression and World War II, Roosevelt created the New Deal, expanding regulation, social rights, and federal intervention to save liberal democracy and reformed capitalism.

Franz Ferdinand

Archduke and heir apparent1863–1914

Heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand favored a trialist federalism to accommodate the empire's Slavic nationalities and ease internal tensions; his 1914 assassination in Sarajevo triggered World War I.

Frederick the Great

Monarch1712–1786

King of Prussia, Frederick the Great made the kingdom a military and administrative power, embodying enlightened despotism and the cameralist state of disciplined bureaucracy, centralized finances, and tolerance.

Friedrich Merz

Chancellor of Germany1955–

Christian Democratic chancellor of Germany since 2025 and former head of BlackRock Germany. He tightened migration and border policy, loosened the debt brake to rearm the country and keeps the firewall against the AfD; a Catholic, he is socially conservative.

Gabriel Boric

President of Chile1986–

Former student leader and President of Chile since 2022, he embodies the democratic Latin American left: climate focus, expanding welfare rights, strict defense of human rights and criticism of authoritarian regimes.

Gabriele D'Annunzio

Poet and leader of the Regency of Carnaro1863–1938

An Italian poet and nationalist, he led the 1919 occupation of Fiume and governed the Regency of Carnaro. The Charter of Carnaro, drafted with Alceste De Ambris, combined corporatism, social rights and popular sovereignty.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

President of Egypt1918–1970

Egypt's president from 1956 to 1970, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and expanded state ownership and land reform. He championed pan-Arabism and non-alignment while concentrating power and repressing the opposition.

Gavin Newsom

Governor of California1967–

Democratic governor of California since 2019 and a 2028 presidential hopeful, he leads state resistance to Trump on immigration, climate and redistricting. A same-sex marriage pioneer in San Francisco, he regulates AI but has cracked down on homeless camps.

Genghis Khan

Founder of the Mongol Empirec. 1162–1227

Born Temujin, Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes in 1206, reorganized steppe society into a meritocratic military machine, and launched conquests that devastated rival empires while opening routes of trade, exchange, and pragmatic religious tolerance.

George W. Bush

Statesman1946–

An American statesman, George W. Bush united religious conservatism, tax cuts, and a neoconservative foreign policy, marked by the War on Terror and the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq.

George Washington

Statesman and military leader1732–1799

Founder and first president of the United States, Washington combined military leadership, constitutional republicanism, federalism, and diplomatic prudence, defending a strong republic without permanent entanglement in foreign alliances.

Georges Clemenceau

Président du Conseil · 1906–1909 et 1917–19201841–1929

Radical républicain et dreyfusard, Clemenceau combine défense des libertés et opposition à la colonisation avec maintien ferme de l’ordre social et conduite de la guerre de 1917–1918. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Républicanisme radical · laïcité et gouvernement d’ordre. Période : 1906–1920 · deux présidences du Conseil. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Georges Pompidou

Président de la République · 1969–19741911–1974

État national fort, modernisation industrielle et infrastructures, économie mixte et ouverture commerciale. Les recueils de l’Institut Georges Pompidou donnent les textes primaires et leurs dates, avec neutralité sur les axes non couverts. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Gaullisme de droite, État stratège — période 1969-1974. Période : Présidence 1969-1974 ; propositions 1969-1973. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Geraldo Alckmin

Vice President of Brazil1952–

Four-time governor of São Paulo for the center-right PSDB, with concessions, PPPs and isolation of prison gang leaders, Alckmin moved to the PSB and is Lula's vice president and industry minister, backing reindustrialization and the Mercosur-EU deal and opposing abortion.

Getúlio Vargas

Statesman1882–1954

A Brazilian statesman, Vargas shaped modern Brazil with developmentalist nationalism, state-directed industrialization, and labor legislation, founding Brazilian labourism and marking decades of national politics.

Giovanni Giolitti

Primeiro-ministro da Itália1842–1928

Five-time Prime Minister of liberal Italy who governed through pragmatic transformism, expanded universal male suffrage, and introduced social reforms integrating moderate socialists.

Gregor Strasser

Politician1892–1934

Leader of the anti-capitalist wing of Nazism, Strasser championed a mass nationalist socialism with nationalizations and social reform, before being eliminated by Hitler in the Night of the Long Knives in 1934.

Grigory Zinoviev

Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet leader1883–1936

A Bolshevik leader, Zinoviev chaired the Communist International from 1919 to 1926 and led the party in Leningrad. An ally of Stalin against Trotsky after Lenin’s death, he was later convicted in a show trial and executed during the Great Purge.

Gustavo Petro

President of Colombia1960–

Economist and Colombia's first leftist president, elected in 2022. He champions a green transition away from fossil fuels, Total Peace negotiations with insurgencies and redistributive welfare reforms.

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden1594–1632

King of Sweden from 1611 to 1632, Gustavus Adolphus reformed the army with linear infantry and light artillery, made Sweden a Baltic power and entered the Thirty Years' War as a Lutheran champion, dying at Lützen.

Hafez al-Assad

President of Syria1930–2000

Syrian president from 1971 to 2000, Hafez al-Assad consolidated a militarized authoritarian Ba’athist state, combining Arab socialism, nationalism, single-party rule, patronage and pragmatic regional diplomacy.

Hans-Adam II

Prince of Liechtenstein1945–

Sovereign Prince of Liechtenstein since 1989 and author of The State in the Third Millennium, advocating local self-determination down to the municipal level, constitutional monarchy, and free markets.

Harry S. Truman

Statesman1884–1972

President of the United States (1945–1953), Truman ordered the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, launched the Marshall Plan and the containment doctrine at the outset of the Cold War, racially integrated the armed forces, and led the United States into the Korean War.

Helmut Kohl

Former Chancellor of Germany1930–2017

A Christian Democrat of the CDU and chancellor for 16 years (1982–98), Kohl led German reunification, deepened European integration through the Maastricht Treaty and the euro, made moderate liberalizing reforms and fell after the secret donations scandal.

Hendrik Verwoerd

Politician1901–1966

Known as the architect of apartheid, Verwoerd systematized institutional racial segregation in South Africa, grounding racial nationalism in the legal and territorial separation imposed on the country's Black majority.

Henry Kissinger

Diplomat1923–2023

An American diplomat, Kissinger was a master of realpolitik, shaping US foreign policy in the Cold War with détente, the opening to China, and controversial interventions in the name of the national interest.

Henry VIII

King of England1491–1547

King of England from 1509 to 1547, Henry VIII broke with Rome through the Act of Supremacy (1534), became head of the Church of England, dissolved the monasteries, centralized power in the Crown under Thomas Cromwell and executed opponents such as Thomas More.

Hirohito

Emperor1901–1989

Emperor of Japan from 1926 to 1989, Hirohito reigned during militarist expansion and World War II as a figure of divine authority within the imperial system, and after defeat renounced his divine status and presided as a symbolic constitutional monarch over the country's democratic reconstruction.

Ho Chi Minh

Revolutionary and statesman1890–1969

Revolutionary and founder of communist Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh led the fight for independence against France and later the United States, uniting anti-colonial nationalism and Marxism-Leninism toward the country's reunification under single-party rule.

Hu Jintao

General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party1942–

Chinese Communist Party general secretary from 2002 to 2012, Hu formulated the Harmonious Society and Scientific Development, sustained growth with higher social spending and tightened digital censorship and repression in Tibet and Xinjiang.

Hugo Chávez

Statesman1954–2013

A Venezuelan statesman, Chávez led 21st-century socialism, nationalizing sectors, funding social programs with oil, and concentrating power in a Bolivarian project of strong popular and nationalist appeal.

Humberto Castelo Branco

Military officer and statesman1897–1967

A Brazilian military officer and statesman, Castelo Branco was the first president of the military dictatorship begun in 1964, conducting the initial repression and economic reforms of liberal orientation and alignment with the United States.

Jacques Chirac

Président de la République · 1995–20071932–2019

Décentralisation dans une République indivisible, économie mixte ouverte, solidarité publique, modernisation et multilatéralisme. Neutralité sur les axes insuffisamment couverts ; pas de vote actuel imputé. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Gaullisme de droite, économie mixte — période 1995-2007. Période : Présidence 1995-2007 ; corpus de 2003. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Jair Bolsonaro

Politician1955–

A Brazilian politician, Bolsonaro reached the presidency leading the nationalist, conservative right, with agendas of security, traditional values, and economic liberalism; convicted over an attempted coup and barred from office, he remains influential.

James Madison

Statesman1751–1836

A founder of the United States and principal architect of the Constitution, Madison championed federalism, the separation of powers, and individual rights, seeking to balance strong republican government with checks against tyranny.

János Kádár

Dictator1912–1989

Hungary's leader after the 1956 Soviet repression, Kádár consolidated pragmatic communism, single-party rule, alignment with Moscow, and limited economic opening aimed at consumption.

JD Vance

Vice President of the United States1984–

A former U.S. senator from Ohio and author of 'Hillbilly Elegy' who converted to Catholicism in 2019, Vance champions protectionist tariffs, mass deportation, cutting military aid to Ukraine, and pro-family natalist policies.

Jean Jaurès

Député, penseur socialiste et pacifiste1859–1914

Jaurès articule république démocratique et émancipation sociale, soutient la laïcité et combat l’escalade vers la guerre. Les scores comparent des positions historiques documentées. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Socialisme démocratique · émancipation sociale et laïcité. Période : 1893–1914 · socialisme républicain et défense de la paix. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Jean Zay

Ministre de l’Éducation nationale · 1936–19391904–1944

Radical-socialiste, Zay défend l’école publique, sa neutralité, l’élargissement de la scolarité et la recherche scientifique. Le reste de son positionnement est documenté avec prudence. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Républicanisme radical-socialiste · école publique et laïcité. Période : 1936–1939 · ministère de l’Éducation nationale. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Jean-Luc Mélenchon

Fondateur de La France insoumise1951–

République sociale et écologique : participation citoyenne, services publics, planification et protection commerciale. Les valeurs sont des estimations éditoriales du corpus publié, pas des pourcentages officiels. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Socialisme démocratique et écologique. Période : 2025–2026 ; vérification au 8 octobre 2026. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Jean-Paul Marat

Journalist and revolutionary1743–1793

A physician and journalist of the French Revolution, Marat edited L’Ami du peuple and advocated popular sovereignty, exceptional measures against counterrevolution, and vigilance over rulers. In The Chains of Slavery (1774), he denounced monarchical despotism.

Jefferson Davis

President of the Confederate States1808–1889

U.S. senator and secretary of war, Davis presided over the Confederate States during the Civil War, defending secession, states' rights and slavery as the basis of the South's social and economic order.

Jiang Zemin

General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party1926–2022

Chinese Communist Party general secretary from 1989 to 2002, Jiang preserved the party monopoly after Tiananmen, suppressed Falun Gong and promoted the Three Represents, WTO accession and reform of state-owned enterprises.

Jimmy Carter

President of the United States1924–2024

A Democratic president and devout Baptist (1977–81), Carter made human rights the core of foreign policy, deregulated airlines and transport, brokered Camp David, returned the Panama Canal and fell after the Iran hostage crisis and stagflation.

João Campos

Mayor of Recife and Engineer1993–present

Brazilian engineer and politician from the PSB, mayor of Recife re-elected with record margins. Known for modern digital communication and public management focused on urban revitalization, slope stabilization, and public nursery expansion.

João Doria

Businessman and politician1957–

A businessman and broadcaster, Doria was mayor and governor of São Paulo, led the covid vaccination drive against the federal government and privatised state companies; now partyless, he backs a centrist path.

João Goulart

Statesman1919–1976

A Brazilian statesman, João Goulart was a reformist left-wing president, a defender of grassroots reforms and workers' rights, deposed by the 1964 military coup that began the dictatorship in Brazil.

Joe Biden

Statesman1942–

An American statesman, Biden represents the liberal Democratic center, combining a moderate welfare state, international alliances, institutional defense, and gradual progressive advances.

John F. Kennedy

Statesman1917–1963

An American statesman, Kennedy combined reformist liberalism, Cold War anti-communism, civil rights, and technological modernization, symbolizing the New Frontier agenda.

John IV of Portugal

King of Portugal1604–1656

The Duke of Braganza acclaimed king after the Restoration of 1640, John IV ended the Iberian Union and led Portugal in war against Spain to recover its independence. He founded the Braganza dynasty and sought diplomatic alliances to sustain the new kingdom.

Jonas Gahr Støre

Prime Minister of Norway1960–

Labour leader and prime minister of Norway since 2021, re-elected in 2025. A pro-NATO social democrat, he keeps the wealth tax and state-owned Equinor, defends oil exploration and recognized Palestine, alongside a restrictive asylum policy.

Jordan Bardella

Dirigeant politique · Rassemblement national1995–

Les mesures 2024 décrivent un programme de parti et de majorité, pas des réponses individuelles. Positions sécuritaires, préférence nationale, marché privé et interventions stratégiques. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Droite nationaliste et conservatrice. Période : Législatives 2024 ; programme économique RN et contre-budget 2026. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

José Antonio Kast

President of Chile1966–

Founder of Chile's Republican Party and president since March 2026, a conservative Catholic who has openly praised Pinochet's legacy. He pledges to expel irregular migrants, toughen sentences, cut spending and lower corporate taxes, and opposes abortion.

José Antonio Primo de Rivera

Politician1903–1936

Founder of the Spanish Falange, Primo de Rivera created national syndicalism, advocating a corporatist, nationalist, Catholic state against liberalism and Marxism, becoming a martyr of the Francoist right.

José Mujica

Statesman1935–2025

A former guerrilla and Uruguayan statesman, Mujica embodied a democratic left, austere and libertarian in customs, defending moderate redistribution, civil rights, and a critique of consumerism.

Joseph Goebbels

Propaganda Minister1897–1945

Propaganda Minister of the Third Reich, Goebbels built the Nazi propaganda machine through radio, film and mass rallies, spread radical antisemitism and proclaimed total war, killing himself and his family in 1945.

Joseph II of Austria

Holy Roman Emperor1741–1790

Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria, Joseph II abolished personal serfdom, decreed religious tolerance, closed hundreds of monasteries, imposed German on the administration and saw his reforms provoke revolts, in Belgium and Hungary.

Joseph Stalin

Dictator1878–1953

At the head of the Soviet Union, Stalin imposed forced industrialization, agrarian collectivization, and central planning, consolidating a single-party regime marked by purges, terror, and mass repression.

Josip Broz Tito

Statesman1892–1980

Leader of socialist Yugoslavia, Tito unified diverse peoples under a single party, adopted workers' self-management, and broke with Moscow, leading the Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War.

Juan Domingo Perón

Statesman1895–1974

An Argentine president and founder of Peronism, Perón combined popular nationalism, labor rights, corporatism, protected industrialization, charismatic leadership, and a third position between liberalism and communism.

Jules Ferry

Président du Conseil et ministre de l’Instruction publique1832–1893

Ferry porte l’école primaire publique gratuite, laïque et obligatoire, tout en défendant l’expansion coloniale et ses hiérarchies. Ces dimensions doivent rester visibles dans les comparaisons. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Républicanisme laïque · expansion coloniale. Période : 1879–1885 · école républicaine et politique coloniale. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Julio Argentino Roca

President of Argentina1843–1914

General and twice president of Argentina, Roca led the Desert Campaign against Indigenous peoples, federalized Buenos Aires and headed the Generation of '80: a centralized state, secular schooling, European immigration and an agro-export economy.

Julius Caesar

Military leader100 a.C.–44 a.C.

A Roman general and statesman, Caesar combined military prestige, popular reforms, and the concentration of personal authority, weakening the aristocratic republic and paving the way for imperial power in Rome.

Julius Nyerere

Statesman1922–1999

The father of Tanzania's independence, Nyerere created Ujamaa, an African socialism based on communal villages, self-reliance, and national unity above ethnicity.

Juscelino Kubitschek

Statesman1902–1976

President of Brazil (1956–1961), Kubitschek launched the Target Plan and the construction of Brasília under the slogan "fifty years in five," promoting rapid industrialization, foreign borrowing, and developmentalist optimism.

Justin Trudeau

Statesman1971–

Prime Minister of Canada (2015–2025) for the Liberal Party, Trudeau promoted multiculturalism, welcoming immigrants and refugees, progressive gender and environmental policies, and a centrist governing style backed by strong state social intervention.

Justinian I

Byzantine emperor482–565

Emperor of the Byzantine Empire at its height, Justinian I codified Roman law in the Corpus Juris Civilis, reconquered Italy, North Africa, and southern Spain, ordered the construction of Hagia Sophia, and imposed Chalcedonian orthodoxy.

Kalevi Sorsa

Finnish prime minister1930–2004

Finnish social democratic prime minister, Sorsa expanded public services and social protection, promoted agreements among government, unions and employers, and combined European trade integration with Cold War neutrality.

Keir Hardie

Politician1856–1915

A Scottish politician, Keir Hardie was a founder of the British Labour Party, defending workers' rights, suffrage, and social reforms within democracy, marking the birth of modern labourism.

Keir Starmer

Prime Minister of the United Kingdom1962–

British Prime Minister and Labour leader who won power in 2024. Former chief prosecutor, he emphasizes fiscal discipline, public clean energy investment, rebuilt public services and pragmatic ties with the EU.

Kim Il-sung

Dictator1912–1994

Founder of North Korea, Kim Il-sung created the Juche doctrine of national self-reliance and established a single-party regime with a cult of the leader that fuses communism, nationalism, and hereditary dynastic power.

Kim Jong Un

Dictator1984–

The North Korean dictator, Kim Jong Un preserved the dynastic Juche regime, with single-party rule, a cult of the leader, nuclear militarization, a state economy, and rigid isolation from the outside world.

Kim Kataguiri

Federal deputy1996–

Federal deputy, MBL co-founder and the Mission Party’s sole representative in Congress, he combines economic liberalism and free trade with tough-on-crime policies, institutional reform, technology-focused industrial policy and moderate social conservatism.

King David

King of Israelc. 1040–970 BCE

According to the Bible, David united the tribes of Israel, conquered Jerusalem and made it his capital, defeated the Philistines, brought the Ark to the city and built a centralized kingdom, and tradition attributes the Psalms to him and the line of the Messiah.

Konrad Adenauer

Statesman1876–1967

West Germany's first chancellor, Adenauer consolidated Christian democracy, the social market economy, and the country's integration into the West, rebuilding the nation after the war and anchoring it in Europe.

Lachlan Macquarie

Governor of New South Wales1762–1824

Colonial governor of New South Wales (1810–21), Macquarie replaced military rule with public works and town planning, granted land and office to freed convicts and founded schools for Aboriginal people, but ordered the Appin massacre against resisters.

Lázaro Cárdenas

Statesman1895–1970

Revolutionary general and president of Mexico, Cárdenas nationalized oil, expanded the ejidos, incorporated workers and peasants into the state, and consolidated post-revolutionary secular national populism.

Lee Kuan Yew

Statesman1923–2015

Founder of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew transformed the city-state into a model of authoritarian capitalism, uniting open markets, technocratic meritocracy, strict order, and heavily restricted political freedoms.

Lee Teng-hui

Statesman1923–2020

President of Taiwan (1988–2000) and the first directly elected by popular vote, Lee guided the transition from Kuomintang one-party rule to a full multiparty democracy, promoting a distinct Taiwanese identity and economic liberalization.

Léon Blum

Chef du gouvernement du Front populaire1872–1950

Blum dirige une coalition parlementaire qui défend les libertés, les droits sociaux et la paix ; congés payés, quarante heures et négociation collective en sont des repères. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Socialisme démocratique · Front populaire. Période : 1936–1938 · Front populaire. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Léon Degrelle

Leader of Belgium's Rexist movement1906–1994

Leader of Belgium's Catholic Rexist movement, he became a Nazi collaborator during the occupation and commanded Walloon volunteers in the Waffen-SS. After the war, he lived in exile in Spain and remained an admirer of Hitler.

Leon Trotsky

Revolutionary1879–1940

Organizer of the Red Army, Trotsky championed permanent revolution and internationalism, becoming the main left-wing opponent of Stalinist bureaucratization until he was exiled and assassinated in Mexico.

Leonel Brizola

Politician1922–2004

A Brazilian politician, Brizola was one of the great names of labourism, defending nationalism, social reforms, public education, and workers' rights, with strong activity before and after the dictatorship.

Lorenzo de’ Medici

Florentine ruler and patron1449–1492

De facto ruler of Florence from 1469, Lorenzo balanced diplomacy among the Italian powers and consolidated Medici influence. A poet and humanist, he gathered artists and philosophers at his court.

Louis Auguste Blanqui

Revolutionary1805–1881

French revolutionary and conspirator, Blanqui argued that an organized minority should seize power by insurrection and impose a provisional dictatorship, spent over thirty years in prison, was elected to the Paris Commune from his cell and took the motto "Neither God nor master".

Louis Blanc

Penseur socialiste et membre du gouvernement de 18481811–1882

Blanc défend l’organisation du travail par des associations ouvrières aidées par la puissance publique et le droit au travail. Les catégories actuelles ne sont appliquées qu’aux dimensions documentées. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Socialisme coopératif et républicain. Période : 1847–1848 · Organisation du travail et révolution de Février. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Louis XIV

Monarch1638–1715

France's Sun King, Louis XIV personified monarchical absolutism by divine right, centralizing power, subjecting the nobility to the court of Versailles, and expanding the cultural and military prestige of the French kingdom.

Luiz Philippe de Orleans e Bragança

Federal Congressman and Political Scientist1969–present

Brazilian federal congressman, political scientist, and monarchist activist descending from the imperial family. He advocates free-market economic reforms, federalist decentralization, state deregulation, and conservative institutional principles.

Lula da Silva

Statesman1945–

A Brazilian statesman, Lula rose from union activism to Brazil's presidency, leading the left with social programs, anti-poverty policies, and a development project with a strong state presence.

Lyndon B. Johnson

President of the United States1908–1973

A Democratic president from 1963 to 1969, Johnson launched the Great Society and the war on poverty, created Medicare and Medicaid and signed the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts, but escalated the Vietnam War, which destroyed his popularity.

Manuel I of Portugal

King of Portugal1469–1521

Manuel I reigned at the height of Portuguese maritime expansion, when Vasco da Gama reached India and Cabral reached Brazil, centralizing the spice trade through the Casa da India.

Mao Zedong

Revolutionary1893–1976

Leader of the Chinese Revolution and founder of the People's Republic, Mao adapted Marxism to the peasantry through people's war, collectivization, and the permanent mobilization of the masses in campaigns of radical transformation.

Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa

President of Portugal1948–

Law professor, TV commentator and former PSD leader, Marcelo was president of Portugal from 2016 to 2026, with a warm, close-to-the-people style, moderate Catholic conservatism, Europeanism and cooperation with left-wing governments.

Marco Aurélio

Roman emperor121–180

Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher, Marcus Aurelius ruled through continuous frontier wars and a devastating plague, wrote the Meditations on duty and self-mastery, and persecuted Christians who refused the official cult.

Marco Rubio

U.S. Secretary of State1971–

A Cuban American, former U.S. senator from Florida, and Secretary of State since 2025, he led the crackdown on Venezuela (capturing Maduro) and Cuba, champions tariffs and 'common good capitalism', and is a practicing Catholic opposed to abortion and same-sex marriage.

Marine Le Pen

Dirigeante politique · Rassemblement national1968–

Programme sécuritaire et assimilationniste, protection nationale et économie privée avec interventions publiques ciblées. Les documents collectifs RN complètent le texte personnel 2022 sans devenir un nouveau programme individuel. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Droite nationaliste et conservatrice. Période : Programme présidentiel 2022 ; documents collectifs RN actualisés 2024-2026. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Marine Tondelier

Dirigeante politique · Les Écologistes1986–

Écologie sociale, services publics décentralisés, démocratie citoyenne et fédéralisme différencié. Défense européenne contrôlée démocratiquement et désarmement multilatéral. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Écologie politique. Période : Projet 2027 collectif des Écologistes ; discours personnel 2025. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Mário Covas

Governor of São Paulo1930–2001

Opposition leader stripped of his mandate by the dictatorship and founder of the PSDB, Covas called for a capitalism shock in the 1989 campaign and, as governor of São Paulo, pursued fiscal adjustment, privatizations and concessions with a social democratic, ethical message.

Mark Carney

Prime Minister of Canada1965–

A former governor of the Bank of Canada and the Bank of England, Carney has been Liberal prime minister since 2025: he scrapped the consumer carbon tax, fast-tracked pipelines and major projects, raised defence spending and retaliated against Trump's tariffs.

Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca

Military officer and statesman1827–1892

An army marshal who led the proclamation of the republic in 1889, Deodoro da Fonseca became the country's first president, ruling in a centralizing and authoritarian manner until dissolving Congress in 1891, resigning shortly after amid institutional crisis.

Matteo Salvini

Politician1973–

An Italian politician, Salvini leads Italy's nationalist right, championing the fight against immigration, national sovereignty, and skepticism toward the European Union, with strong populist and identitarian appeal.

Maurice Thorez

Dirigeant du Parti communiste français1900–1964

Dirigeant du Parti communiste, Thorez participe à la stratégie du Front populaire puis aux gouvernements de la Libération. Son alignement soviétique interdit de confondre ce profil avec une référence social-démocrate. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Communisme français · droits collectifs et service public. Période : 1936–1947 · Front populaire et participation gouvernementale. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Maximilien Robespierre

Revolutionary1758–1794

A central figure of the French Revolution, Robespierre linked republican virtue, popular sovereignty, and civil equality to a centralized revolutionary power, becoming a symbol of Jacobinism and the Terror.

Michel Rocard

Ancien Premier ministre · 1988–19911930–2016

Deuxième gauche : négociation, insertion sociale et gestion d’une économie mixte. Le RMI et les accords de Matignon constituent des repères ; les axes non documentés restent indéterminés. Courant de référence dans le corpus : Social-démocratie réformiste · deuxième gauche. Période : 1988–1991 · gouvernements Rocard. Positionnement sur les axes : estimation éditoriale fondée sur les promesses et actes documentés ; ce ne sont pas des réponses de cette personnalité au questionnaire.

Michel Temer

Statesman1940–

A Brazilian statesman, Temer assumed Brazil's presidency after Dilma's impeachment, conducting a liberal agenda of economic reforms and fiscal adjustment with the support of the political center and the business community.

Miguel Díaz-Canel

President of Cuba1960–

First Secretary of the Communist Party and President of Cuba, succeeding Raúl Castro in 2018: maintains one-party socialist state planning while allowing measured private micro-enterprise reforms.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Statesman1931–2022

The last leader of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev launched perestroika and glasnost, liberalizing the economy and the press, reduced the nuclear arsenal with the West, and allowed the fall of the Berlin Wall, precipitating the collapse of the communist bloc.

Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan

President of the United Arab Emirates1961–

Ruler of Abu Dhabi and UAE President since 2022. Architect of the Emirates' economic and military rise, he drove the Abraham Accords with Israel, post-oil technological diversification and controlled modernization.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

Last Shah of Iran1919–1980

Iran's last shah (1941–1979), Mohammad Reza Pahlavi consolidated an authoritarian monarchy allied with the West. The White Revolution advanced land reform, industrialization and women's rights, while SAVAK repressed the opposition.

Mohammed bin Salman

Statesman1985–

Saudi Arabia's crown prince, Mohammed bin Salman concentrates power and conducts a controlled economic and social modernization, diversifying the oil economy while maintaining strong political repression.

Muammar Gaddafi

Revolutionary and dictator1942–2011

Leader of Libya for over four decades after the 1969 coup, Gaddafi established a "Jamahiriya" of theoretical direct democracy under de facto authoritarian control, nationalized oil, funded pan-Africanist and third-worldist movements, and was deposed and killed during the 2011 civil war.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Founder of Pakistan1876–1948

Lawyer and leader of the Muslim League, Jinnah led the creation of Pakistan in 1947 on the two-nation theory and was its first governor-general, advocating a Muslim-majority state with religious freedom for minorities.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Statesman1881–1938

Founder of modern Turkey, Atatürk imposed radical modernization from above, with secularization, a new alphabet, civil rights for women, and developmentalist nationalism, breaking with the Ottoman and religious heritage.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Emperor1769–1821

A French general and emperor, Napoleon consolidated the Revolution's administrative and legal reforms while concentrating personal power, expanding France militarily and shaping European modernizing authoritarianism.